Morphological adaptation strategy of invasive plant Ambrosia trifida seed distributed along rivers is closely related to soil nutrients

Rivers are crucial in the spread of invasive plants. Invasive plants alter their seed traits to adapt to environmental changes and promote invasion. Studying the trait changes in invasive plant seeds may improve the understanding of their propagation mechanisms along the river and provide appropriate control measures. In this study, seven <i>Ambrosia trifida</i> populations along the Liaohe River were used as study subjects. The results showed that the seven <i>A. trifida</i> populations were closely related and exhibited a certain gene exchange, but the absence of evidence of directed gene flow among populations did not confirm that rivers were the medium of seed dispersal of <i>A. trifida</i>. Along the Liaohe River, from top to bottom, the positive view area, length, width, perimeter, and thousand seed weight of <i>A. trifida</i> seeds showed an increasing trend. The total nitrogen and phosphorus contents in the river water of the <i>A. trifida</i> population in the lower reaches of the Liaohe River were higher than those at the other sites. Furthermore, along the river, from top to bottom, the available nitrogen, total nitrogen, total potassium, available potassium, and organic matter contents in the soil in which <i>A. trifida</i> populations grew showed significant increasing trends. River structure, water quality, and soil nutrients had direct and indirect effects on seed morphology. Soil total nitrogen, available potassium, and organic matter had significant positive effects on seed positive view area and perimeter, suggesting that the maternal effect played a critical role in shaping seed morphology. Our analysis showed that soil nutrients along the river may be the primary driver that governs changes in <i>A. trifida</i> seed traits.