Islamism and nationalism: how did old enemies become new allies?

Abstract Historically, religion and nationalism were opposing forces in many countries. Recently, however, they began to converge as part of rising populist movements globally. In the Muslim world, the partnership between Islamists and nationalists has become evident in several important countries such as Turkey, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Malaysia. This merging of Islamism and populist nationalism in the last decade signifies a third period in the Muslim world, following the era of secularist domination (1920s–1970s) and the era of Islamization (1970s–2010s). Some Islamic conservatives might regard the unification of religious and nationalist forces as beneficial to their conservative agenda. Nonetheless, this comes at the high cost of discrimination against Muslim minorities in several countries, such as India, Israel, the United States, and France. Beyond Muslim-majority countries and Muslim minorities, the global trend of advancing a religious-nationalist agenda threatens minority rights. This trend poses a major challenge to democracy, equal citizenship, and minority rights worldwide.