<em>Māra’s</em> Tempting Voices and Insights of the <em>Bhikkhuṇīs</em>: Locating Genderless Perception beyond <em>Ithhibhāva</em> and <em>Mātugāma</em>

Māra, the dark counterpart to the Buddha, plays a significant role in the Buddhist pantheon by challenging early Buddhist monastics, particularly by attempting to distract them from their spiritual goals and testing their perseverance in achieving enlightenment. Previous scholarship has often interpreted Māra as embodying a male voice that questions women's ability to grasp the deep philosophical insights of the Buddha's teachings, reflecting a patriarchal bias in early Indian Buddhism. This view suggests that Māra symbolizes a male desire to suppress female agency and resist the establishment of the Bhikkhuṇī-saṅgha, an institutionalized women-led spiritual movement. While acknowledging these gender-based interpretations, this article proposes that Māra can also be understood as a gender-neutral entity representing inner defilements that hinder the path to arahathood. By examining specific examples from the Therīgāthā and the Bhikkhuṇī-saṃyutta alongside gender theories, the paper argues for a more nuanced view of Māra as a symbol of internal obstacles rather than exclusively as a manifestation of patriarchal oppression. This perspective highlights the wisdom of the Bhikkhuṇīs in their struggle for liberation against Māra's temptations, emphasizing their resilience and spiritual strength.