Adversarial Attacks in Explainable Machine Learning: A Survey of Threats Against Models and Humans

ABSTRACT Reliable deployment of machine learning models such as neural networks continues to be challenging due to several limitations. Some of the main shortcomings are the lack of interpretability and the lack of robustness against adversarial examples or out‐of‐distribution inputs. In this paper, we comprehensively review the possibilities and limits of adversarial attacks for explainable machine learning models. First, we extend the notion of adversarial examples to fit in explainable machine learning scenarios where a human assesses not only the input and the output classification, but also the explanation of the model's decision. Next, we propose a comprehensive framework to study whether (and how) adversarial examples can be generated for explainable models under human assessment. Based on this framework, we provide a structured review of the diverse attack paradigms existing in this domain, identify current gaps and future research directions, and illustrate the main attack paradigms discussed. Furthermore, our framework considers a wide range of relevant yet often ignored factors such as the type of problem, the user expertise or the objective of the explanations, in order to identify the attack strategies that should be adopted in each scenario to successfully deceive the model (and the human). The intention of these contributions is to serve as a basis for a more rigorous and realistic study of adversarial examples in the field of explainable machine learning.