Extreme Saharan dust events expand northward over the Atlantic and Europe, prompting record-breaking PM ₁₀ and PM _2.5 episodes

Abstract. Unprecedented extreme Saharan dust (duxt) events have recently expanded northward from subtropical NW Africa to the Atlantic and Europe, with severe impacts on the Canary Islands, mainland Spain and continental Portugal. These six historic duxt episodes occurred on 3–5 and 22–29 February 2020, 15–21 February 2021, 14–17 January 2022, 29 January–1 February 2022, and 14–20 March 2022. We analyzed data of 341 governmental air quality monitoring stations (AQMSs) in Spain (330) and Portugal (11), where PM10 and PM2.5 are measured with European norm (EN) standards, and found that during duxt events PM10 concentrations are underestimated due to technical limitations of some PM10 monitors meaning that they can not properly measure extremely high concentrations. We assessed the consistency of PM10 and PM2.5 data and reconstructed 1690 PM10 (1 h average) data points of 48 and 7 AQMSs in Spain and Portugal, respectively, by using our novel “duxt-r” method. During duxt events, 1 h average PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations were within the range 1000–6000 µg m−3 and 400–1200 µg m−3, respectively. The intense winds leading to massive dust plumes occurred within meteorological dipoles formed by a blocking anticyclone over western Europe and a cutoff low located to the southwest, near the Canary Islands and Cape Verde, or into the Sahara. These cyclones reached this region via two main paths: by deviating southward from the Atlantic mid-latitude westerly circulation or northward from the tropical belt. The analysis of the 2000–2022 PM10 and PM2.5 time series shows that these events have no precedent in this region. The 22–29 February 2020 event led to (24 h average) PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations within the range 600–1840 and 200–404 µg m−3, respectively, being the most intense dust episode ever recorded on the Canary Islands. The 14–20 March 2022 event led to (24 h average) PM10 and PM2.5 values within the range 500–3070 and 100–690 µg m−3 in southeastern Spain, 200–1000 and 60–260 µg m−3 in central Spain, 150–500 and 75–130 µg m−3 in the northern regions of mainland Spain, and within the ranges 200–650 and 30–70 µg m−3 in continental Portugal, respectively, being the most intense dust episode ever recorded in these regions. All duxt events occurred during meteorological anomalies in the Northern Hemisphere characterized by subtropical anticyclones shifting to higher latitudes, anomalous low pressure expanding beyond the tropical belt and amplified mid-latitude Rossby waves. New studies have reported on recent record-breaking PM10 and PM2.5 episodes linked to dipole-induced extreme dust events from North Africa and Asia in a paradoxical context of a multidecadal decrease in dust emissions, a topic that requires further investigation.