The indirect costs of motherhood and fatherhood: impacts on income, working hours, and perceived health across 32 European countries

Abstract Background Parenthood may affect men’s and women’s personal lives, professional careers, and well-being differently. In the last decades, structural modifications in gender norms, the labor market, and family-supporting policies have occurred, but with cross-country variations, even within European borders. This study aimed to update the estimates on the impact of parenthood on men’s and women’s income, working hours, and perceived health status, and better comprehend their variation across 32 European countries, using a longitudinal approach. Methods Data from the European Survey on Income and Living Conditions (2004-2020) were used to estimate the income variation and the likelihood of transitioning into a non-income status, less than 40 weekly hours, and less than very good health status, from one year before to one year after parenthood. Estimates were done by sex and country. Pooled effects were estimated using random effects meta-analysis. Results We found a short-term 29% income penalty for women and a 12% income premium for men after parenthood. Seventy percent of women who transitioned their status after motherhood shifted to work less than 40 hours per week while no effect was found for men. Regarding perceived health, no shifts were overall observed. A large cross-country heterogeneity was found. Conclusions Motherhood-related income penalties concurred with losses of employment and reductions of weekly working hours, while among men the income premiums were not necessarily coupled with transitions to employed status or 40 weekly working hours. The cross-country heterogeneity is, probably, multifactorial, depending on countries’ policies, norms, labor market, and social structure.