Comparative evolution of vernacular settlements among the Cantonese, Teochew, and Hakka ethnic groups in Lingnan

Cantonese, Teochew, and Hakka are three major ethnic groups in southern China that exhibit distinct characteristics despite their close geographical and cultural ties. This study employs an analysis of historical documents, architectural documentation, interviews, and observations to examine common settlement patterns and unique evolutionary mechanisms. The findings indicate that all three groups commonly feature a “tanghengshi” architectural prototype, rooted in Central Plains cultural heritage. Both Teochew and Hakka communities have consistently preserved this traditional structure. In contrast, Cantonese settlements have transitioned toward a “binglieshi” layout, characterized by the decline of horizontal houses and a reorientation of architectural elements. This study also investigates how large “tanghengshi” residences and smaller “binglieshi” dwellings may mutually transform. These adaptations in settlement form respond to Lingnan’s geographical and climatic conditions, influenced by social organization, Central Plains culture, and external factors. This research significantly advances our understanding of the relationships among the Cantonese, Teochew, and Hakka settlements and provides valuable insights for future restoration efforts.