Comparing efficacy in reducing pulling and welfare impacts of four types of leash walking equipment

There were statistically significant differences among the leash equipment types in pulling impulse (Newtons × seconds), (χ² ₍₂₎ = 30.6, <i>p</i> < 0.001). <i>Post-hoc</i> analysis revealed significant differences in impulse between the martingale and the other equipment: harness (Z = -3.69, <i>p</i> < 0.001), Starmark collar (Z = -3.62, <i>p</i> < 0.001) and prong collar (Z = -3.92, <i>p</i> < 0.001). No other differences among equipment types were significant. Fifteen behaviors were examined as welfare indicators but only three: looking at the handler, lip licking, and sniffing occurred across all dogs and all walks. There was a statistically significant difference in frequency of lip licking behavior across the four types of leash-equipment (χ² ₍₂₎ = 8.17, <i>p</i> = 0.04) and <i>post-hoc</i> analysis showed a difference between the martingale and the harness (Z = -2.65, <i>p</i> = 0.008). While our research did not provide any clear evidence of poorer welfare due to equipment type, we caution the generalizability of these findings and recommend further assessment of these items of leash-walking equipment in real-life scenarios.