<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i> infection induces the expression of the chemokine CXCL16 in macrophages to promote chemoattraction of CXCR6 ⁺ cells

CXCL16 is a multifaceted chemokine expressed by macrophages and other immune cells in response to viral and bacterial pathogens. However, few studies have investigated its role in parasitic infections. The obligate intracellular parasite <i>Toxoplasma gondii</i> (<i>T. gondii</i>) is the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, an infection with potentially deleterious consequences in immunocompromised individuals and the developing fetus of acutely infected pregnant women. Chemokines are critical mediators of host defense and, as such, dysregulation of their expression is a subversion strategy often employed by the parasite to ensure its survival. Herein, we report that types I and II <i>T. gondii</i> strains upregulated the expression of both transmembrane and soluble forms of CXCL16 in infected bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM). Exposure to soluble <i>T. gondii</i> antigens (STAg) and to excreted-secreted proteins (TgESP) led to the induction of CXCL16. <i>Cxcl16</i> mRNA abundance and CXCL16 protein levels increased in a time-dependent manner upon <i>T. gondii</i> infection. Importantly, conditioned medium (CM) collected from <i>T. gondii</i>-infected wild-type (WT) macrophage cultures promoted the migration of RAW264.7 cells expressing CXCR6, the cognate receptor of CXCL16, an effect that was significantly reduced by a neutralizing anti-CXCL16 antibody or use of CM from CXCL16 knockout (KO) macrophages. Lastly, <i>T. gondii</i>-driven CXCL16 expression appeared to modulate cytokine-induced (IL-4 + IL-13) alternative macrophage activation and M2 phenotypic marker expression. Further investigation is required to determine whether this chemokine contributes to the pathogenesis of toxoplasmosis and to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms.