Modifying factors and temporal trends of adverse health effects of short-term exposure to PM2.5 in Canada (2001–2018)

Considerable evidence has been accumulated on serious acute health outcomes associated with short-term exposure to ambient fine particulate matter (PM_2.5). Modifying factors of those associations, however, have been less explored and need further analyses. In this national study, we investigated whether short-term effects of PM_2.5 are modified according to region, cause of mortality/hospitalization, season, age, and sex. PM_2.5-related adverse health effects were estimated by an ecological time-series study, covering about 80 % of the Canadian population for 18 years (2001-2018). We estimated city-specific associations using daily averages of PM_2.5 and temperature, and daily counts of hospitalizations and mortality (non-accidental all-cause, circulatory, and respiratory). National and regional associations were then estimated with a 2-stage model. We considered potential modifying factors of PM_2.5-related adverse health effects, and examined linear trends in the annual associations. Nationally, PM_2.5 exposure was associated with both hospitalizations and mortality, and there was evidence of differences by the modifying factors. Of the various causes, circulatory mortality and respiratory hospitalization were more attributable to PM_2.5 exposure. We found regional differences for both all-cause hospitalization and all-cause mortality, and seasonal differences for respiratory hospitalization (warm season) and circulatory hospitalization (cold season). Circulatory mortality risk was significant for seniors and females. All-cause hospitalizations appeared to gradually decrease over time, but annual all-cause mortality remained constant at 0.6 % of the population. Adverse health effects of PM_2.5 exposures may depend on not only PM_2.5 concentration, but also other factors (region, cause, season, age, sex). National estimates for the baseline (age ≥ 1 year, both sexes) risk cannot be interpreted without consideration of the differences by modifying factors. Study findings can be used by seniors, women, and those who have pre-existing health conditions to make informed decisions regarding their health risks from daily exposure to ambient PM_2.5.