The Impact of Metal Ions on MXene Membranes: Critical Role of Titanium Vacancies

Two-dimensional transition metal carbides and nitrides (MXenes) and MXene-based membranes hold promise for applications including water purification and seawater desalination; however, their environmental behavior and fate in these matrices remain unknown. In this study, we systematically assessed the reaction efficiencies of Ti₃C₂T<i>_x</i> at varying important environmental conditions. Our experiments revealed that copper and iron ions accelerated the oxidation rate of Ti₃C₂T<i>_x</i> 55.4 and 33.4 times, respectively. TiO₂ and amorphous carbon were identified as the primary solid products. Based on <i>in situ</i> water-phase atomic force microscopy, atomic high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy, and theoretical results, we postulate that metal ions enhance Ti₃C₂T<i>_x</i> oxidation by spontaneously migrating and anchoring at Ti vacancies, which then become active sites for this reaction. This process increases the adsorption of H₂O and oxygen, making the Ti vacancy-rich surface convex area the most vulnerable site to attack. The findings in this study provide useful information for a comprehensive understanding of the interaction between MXene structural defects and metal ions as well as for the design and modification of MXene membranes resistant to metal ion impact.