Phylogeographic Analysis for Understanding Origin, Speciation, and Biogeographic Expansion of Invasive Asian Hornet, Vespa velutina Lepeletier, 1836 (Hymenoptera, Vespidae)

The Asian hornet, <i>Vespa velutina</i>, is an invasive species that has not only expanded its range in Asia but has also invaded European countries, and it incurs significant costs on local apiculture. This phylogeographic study aims to trace the evolutionary trajectory of <i>V. velutina</i> and its close relatives; it aims to identify features that characterize an invasive species. The last successful invasion of <i>Vespa velutina</i> into France occurred in late May, 2002, and into South Korea in early October, 2002, which were estimated by fitting a logistic equation to the number of observations over time. The instantaneous rate of increase is 1.3667 for <i>V. velutina</i> in France and 0.2812 in South Korea, which are consistent with the interpretation of little competition in France and strong competition from local hornet species in South Korea. The invasive potential of two sister lineages can be compared by their distribution area when proper statistical adjustments are made to account for differences in sample size. <i>V. velutina</i> has a greater invasive potential than its sister lineage. The ancestor of <i>V. velutina</i> split into two lineages, one found in Indonesia/Malaysia and the other colonizing the Asian continent. The second lineage split into a sedentary clade inhabiting Pakistan and India and an invasive lineage colonizing much of Southeast Asia. This latter lineage gave rise to the subspecies <i>V. v. nigrithorax</i>, which invaded France, South Korea, and Japan. My software PGT version 1.5, which generates geophylogenies and computes geographic areas for individual taxa, is useful for understanding biogeography in general and invasive species in particular. I discussed the conceptual formulation of an index of invasiveness for a comparison between sister lineages.