Forecasting Solar Energetic Particle Events During Solar Cycles 23 and 24 Using Interpretable Machine Learning

Abstract The prediction of solar energetic particle (SEP) events garners increasing interest as space missions extend beyond Earth’s protective magnetosphere. These events, which are, in most cases, products of magnetic-reconnection-driven processes during solar flares or fast coronal-mass-ejection-driven shock waves, pose significant radiation hazards to aviation, space-based electronics, and particularly space exploration. In this work, we utilize the recently developed data set that combines the Solar Dynamics Observatory/Space-weather Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager Active Region Patches and the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory/Space-weather Michelson Doppler Imager Active Region Patches. We employ a suite of machine learning strategies, including support vector machines (SVMs) and regression models, to evaluate the predictive potential of this new data product for a forecast of post-solar flare SEP events. Our study indicates that despite the augmented volume of data, the prediction accuracy reaches 0.7 ± 0.1 (experimental setting), which aligns with but does not exceed these published benchmarks. A linear SVM model with training and testing configurations that mimic an operational setting (positive–negative imbalance) reveals a slight increase (+0.04 ± 0.05) in the accuracy of a 14 hr SEP forecast compared to previous studies. This outcome emphasizes the imperative for more sophisticated, physics-informed models to better understand the underlying processes leading to SEP events.