The role of battery electric vehicles in off-peak hour deliveries: Sustainability assessment of a case study in Stockholm

City logistics faces critical challenges in optimising resource management, utilising time effectively, and reducing costs, particularly in the context of growing environmental concerns. Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Off-Peak Hour Deliveries (OPHD) have emerged as promising solutions. Despite considerable research efforts, more research is needed to evaluate the impacts of using BEVs during OPHD. To address this need, this paper describes how data from a case study in Stockholm were used to develop a comprehensive overview of the sustainability impacts of OPHD carried out with BEV. A multi-method approach was applied, including an indicator framework, Life Cycle Costing, and a Social Life Cycle Assessment to consider all sustainability dimensions holistically. Our findings reveal that, while BEVs are not yet cost-competitive with Internal Combustion Engine vehicles for daytime operations, OPHD can mitigate these costs by increasing the vehicle utilisation and distances travelled. Furthermore, OPHD with BEV can offer substantial benefits by increasing accessibility and reducing emissions. However, challenges such as increased employee-related transport costs and infrastructure needs must be addressed. The main contributions of this paper are practical, as we add knowledge about the impacts of OPHD using BEV, and methodological, as we used a multi-method approach to holistically assess sustainability impacts. Future research should focus on long-term impacts and refine assessment methods to support the sustainable development of urban logistics. This study highlights the importance of using holistic sustainability assessment to inform and enable stakeholders and decision-makers to leverage the full potential of OPHD when shifting to more sustainable transport.