The role of TiO2 and gC3N4 bimetallic catalysts in boosting antibiotic resistance gene removal through photocatalyst assisted peroxone process

Antibiotics are extensively used in human medicine, aquaculture, and animal husbandry, leading to the release of antimicrobial resistance into the environment. This contributes to the rapid spread of antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs), posing a significant threat to human health and aquatic ecosystems. Conventional wastewater treatment methods often fail to eliminate ARGs, prompting the adoption of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) to address this growing risk. The study investigates the efficacy of visible light-driven photocatalytic systems utilizing two catalyst types (TiO₂-Pd/Cu and g-C₃N₄-Pd/Cu), with a particular emphasis on their effectiveness in eliminating bla_TEM, ermB, qnrS, tetM. intl1, 16 S rDNA and 23 S rDNA through photocatalytic ozonation and peroxone processes. Incorporating O₃ into photocatalytic processes significantly enhances target removal efficiency, with the photocatalyst-assisted peroxone process emerging as the most effective AOP. The reemergence of targeted contaminants following treatment highlights the pivotal importance of AOPs and the meticulous selection of catalysts in ensuring sustained treatment efficacy. Furthermore, Polymerase Chain Reaction-Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) analysis reveals challenges in eradicating GC-rich bacteria with TiO₂ and g-C₃N₄ processes, while slight differences in Cu/Pd loadings suggest g-C₃N₄-based ozonation improved antibacterial effectiveness. Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism analysis highlights the efficacy of the photocatalyst-assisted peroxone process in treating diverse samples.