Classification of volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits in North Qilian, China: Evidenced from lithostratigraphy and geodynamic setting

• The lithostratigraphy classification of VMS deposits in the North Qilian area is discussed based on comprehensive information. • The geodynamic setting of VMS deposits in the North Qilian area is classified based on more mature tectonic evolution models. • The tectonic setting of the North Qilian VMS deposit is discussed in the context of an updated tectonic evolution model and more refined conclusions on the geodynamic background of the mineralization of the VMS deposit. Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits are widely distributed both geographically and temporally, occurring from ancient Archean cratons to modern submarine volcanic environments, with a notable surge during the Paleozoic era. The North Qilian orogenic belt in China is a prominent Paleozoic VMS metallogenic province, shaped by complex geological processes such as the opening of the Qilian Ocean, oceanic subduction, and arc-continent collision. Previous research has constrained the timing of VMS mineralization in the North Qilian to between 440 and 470 Ma, identifying two primary deposit types: Kuroko-type and Cyprus-type. However, ongoing debates persist regarding the classification and geodynamic framework of these VMS deposits. The recent surge in international research on VMS deposit classification and tectonic settings has prompted a reassessment of VMS mineralization within the North Qilian belt. This study revisits the geological and geochemical characteristics of VMS deposits in the region, identifying two distinct types: Mafic VMS deposits and Bimodal-Felsic VMS deposits. Furthermore, the metallogenic dynamics of the Shijuli, Jiugequan, and Baiyinchang deposits have been re-evaluated in the context of the structural evolution and contemporary interpretations in this area.