When Barley and Wheat Meet Millet: Cereal Cultivation Patterns in the Forest and Forest-Steppe of Eastern Europe from the Early Iron Age to the Early Middle Ages

We have compiled data on over 800,000 plant macroremains and their inclusions in pottery from 321 archaeological sites in the forest and forest-steppe zones of Eastern Europe, spanning from the Baltic to the Urals, which have been collected and studied in over a century of archaeobotanical research. The spatiotemporal distribution of these remains was analysed using multivariate statistics, unveiling intricate cultivation patterns influenced by both geoclimatic and historical factors. In the timeline, millet-dominated agriculture was prevalent in Eastern Europe from approximately 900 BCE to 150 CE, followed by an increase in barley production at around 250 CE, potentially associated with western migrations. During the Migration Period (approximately 450 to 650 CE), barley-focused agriculture peaked in the northern part of the region, while the forest steppe regions continued to exhibit millet-rich macroremains. Around 650 CE, wheat gained prominence in the steppe-bordered regions, and rye production increased in the north. We have noticed a gradual rise in the proportion of weed species over two millennia, leading to the growth of “mixed” cereal compositions. Our analysis demonstrates the potential to discern trends in cereal production by combining data from various research methods. However, data gaps hinder our understanding, underscoring the importance of intensive sampling.