Inhibition of HIV-1 replication by nanobodies targeting tetraspanin CD9

HIV-1 alters the dynamics and distribution of tetraspanins, a group of proteins integral to membrane organization, to facilitate both entry and egress. Notably, the tetraspanin CD9 is dysregulated during HIV-1 infection, correlating with multifaceted effects on viral replication. Here, we generated llama-derived nanobodies against CD9 to restrict HIV-1 replication. We immunized llamas with recombinant large extracellular loop of CD9 and identified eight clonally distinct nanobodies targeting CD9, each exhibiting a range of affinities and differential binding to cell surface-expressed CD9. Notably, nanobodies T2C001 and T2C002 demonstrated low nanomolar affinities and exhibited differential sensitivities against endogenous and overexpressed CD9 on the cell surface. Although CD9-directed nanobodies did not impede the early stages of HIV-1 life cycle, they effectively inhibited virus-induced syncytia formation and virus replication in T cells and monocyte-derived macrophages. This discovery opens new avenues for host-targeted therapeutic strategies, potentially augmenting existing antiretroviral treatments for HIV-1.