Two decades of women’s underrepresentation in public service leadership: the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan

During the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2001–2021), the expected representation of Afghan women in leadership and executive roles was not achieved. This study examines factors contributing to this glass ceiling effect. Our research involved 317 participants, comprising 302 civil service professionals and 15 civil society activists. Employing a mixed-methods approach, thematic analysis was conducted for the qualitative data. For the quantitative data, descriptive statistics such as mean and standard deviation were utilized to characterize the data, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to explore differences in responses across key demographic and professional categories. We found that several glass ceiling perceptions, specifically ‘Cultural Barrier Factors’ including entrenched patriarchal norms and familial challenges; ‘Individual Factors’ such as work-family conflict (WFC); ‘Work-Environment Factors’ like nepotism and the absence of merit-based systems; and ‘Interpersonal Relationships’ including weak support networks and the existence of ‘Queen Bee Syndrome’, impeded the advancement of Afghan women in leadership roles.