Synergistic effects of rare-earth ions (Ho, Yb) doping on the photo-catalytic efficacy of V2O5 for removal of pollutants from industrial waste water

The co-doping of vanadium pentoxide (V₂O₅) with rare-earth (RE) elements, namely 1.5 % holmium (Ho) and 1.5 % ytterbium (Yb) has been conducted using an eco-friendly, straightforward hydrothermal approach to assess the combined effects on structural, optical, and photocatalytic properties. The application of the density functional theory (DFT) approach effectively examined the impact of RE ions on the photocatalytic efficiency of co-doped V₂O₅. The stable orthorhombic crystal structure of co-doped V₂O₅ has been confirmed using DFT and X-ray diffraction without a secondary phase. It appears that homogeneous nucleation occurs while heterogeneous nucleation slows down in co-doped samples, as evidenced by the larger crystallite sizes in co-doped samples compared to doped ones. It means a result, the co-doped samples exhibit photodegrades more quickly and have a higher rate constant than the doped samples. This is because they have less dislocation density (4.26 × 10^-3 nm^-2) and internal micro-strain (4.93 × 10^-3). The bandgap and degradation efficiency are determined by the UV-vis spectroscopy and found to be 2.33 eV and 95 %, respectively, at the optimal pH of 7 in the visible range. The co-doped sample has a rate constant of 24 × 10^-3 min^-1, which is the highest in the RE-doped V₂O₅ system. This is a good reason to think of co-doped V₂O₅ as a possible catalyst.