Responses of biomarkers, joint effect and drilosphere bacterial communities to antimony (III and/or V) contamination

Contamination of soils with antimony (Sb) is becoming increasingly severe and widespread, and the associated ecological risks cannot be ignored. To evaluate how different Sb forms affected the earthworm <i>Eisenia fetida</i> in soil, the biomarker response index (BRI), effect addition index (EAI), and microbial diversity were characterized after single and joint application of Sb(III) and Sb(V). The results showed that Sb(III) was better enriched by earthworms than Sb(V). The metallothionein (MT) content in earthworms increased under Sb stress, and the superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activities also showed an increasing trend, suggesting waken-up antioxidant capacity. Severe alterations for health status were observed under combined treatment. Additionally, the EAI indicated that Sb(III) and Sb(V) had synergistic and antagonistic effects at low and high concentrations, respectively. The bacterial populations in the drilosphere (gut and burrow lining) appeared to be more susceptible to Sb contamination than in the non-drilosphere, their specific microecology may be an important factor in soil Sb migration and transformation. The abundance of Actinobacteria exhibited a significant decrease with increasing concentrations of single Sb(III) and Sb(V), while the abundance of Bacteroidia increased. The correlation heatmap showed that <i>Sphingobacterium faecium</i> was highly tolerant to Sb. These results provide not only an important basis for the ecological risk assessment of Sb in the soil environment but also new insights into the altered drilosphere bacterial communities under Sb stress.