Exploring particle-based stabilisation of Pickering emulsions in food, aquaculture, and industrial applications

Abstract Emulsions are combinations of two-phases of immiscible liquids, where one liquid is dispersed throughout the other liquid with the help of emulsifiers such as surfactants. Surfactants, which are emulsifiers composed of small amphiphilic molecules, have several drawbacks. These include being non-biodegradable and releasing various chemical compounds into the environment. Consequently, they are not ideal for prolonged use. Solid particles can be an alternative candidate to stabilise emulsions, forming what are known as Pickering emulsions (PEs). It has shown that PEs exhibited greater encapsulation efficiency (EE) of other substances up to 98%, which is more than twice compared with that of surfactant-stabilised emulsions. Due to its irreversible adsorption, PEs has been recognised in various industries such as cosmetics, food, biomedical and aquaculture which have potential in targeted drug and nutrient delivery to the fish, water management, feed enhancement and stress reduction in aquaculture species. Thus, this review will be discussing on (i) emulsion stability and performance, (ii) solid particles in stabilising Pickering emulsions, (iii) use of PEs in various industries, (iv) nanotechnology in PEs to optimise aquaculture, (v) potential of PEs as drug delivery in fish culture, (vi) PEs as agents in water quality management, and (vii) PEs as encapsulation of stress-relieving compounds, (viii) PEs as fish and fish feed enhancer, (ix) innovations of chitosan-based PEs from aquaculture by-product, and (x) innovations of PEs from fisheries by-product. This review would provide insight into future research on enhancing the sustainability and functionality of Pickering emulsions by exploring novel, environmentally friendly solid particles and incorporating advanced nanotechnology techniques to further improve Pickering emulsions stability.