China's plug-in hybrid electric vehicle transition: An operational carbon perspective

Graphical abstract: (a) Energy intensity (including electricity and gasoline) estimates for the top twenty selling PHEV models in 2022; (b) Operational CO 2 emissions of each PHEV model across different regions in China from 2020 to 2022; (c) Spatial-temporal distributions of energy use (including electricity and gasoline) and associated CO 2 emissions for all top-selling PHEV models from 2020 to 2022. • We monitored the operational emissions of China’s top-selling PHEVs from 2020 to 2022. • The PHEV electricity intensity (0.20–0.38 kWh/km) exceeded its NEDC value by > 30 %. • The PHEV gasoline intensity (0.05–0.24 L/km) was 3–6 times higher than its NEDC value. • The PHEVs emitted 5 MtCO 2 nationwide (2 Mt from electricity and 3 Mt from gasoline). • The energy use of PHEVs in Southern China (27,410 TJ) was double that of other regions. Assessing the emissions of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) operations is crucial for accelerating the carbon–neutral transition in the passenger car sector. This study is the first to adopt a bottom-up model to measure the real-world energy use and carbon dioxide emissions of China’s top twenty selling PHEV models across different regions from 2020 to 2022. The results indicate that (1) the actual electricity intensity of the best-selling PHEV models (20.2–38.2 kWh/100 km) was 30–40 % higher than the New European Driving Cycle values, and the actual gasoline intensity (4.7–23.5 L/100 km) was 3–6 times greater than the New European Driving Cycle values. (2) The overall energy use of the best-selling models varied among different regions, and the energy use from 2020 to 2022 in Southern China was double that Northern China and the Yangtze River Middle Reach. (3) The top-selling models emitted 4.7 megatons of carbon dioxide nationwide from 2020 to 2022, with 1.9 megatons released by electricity consumption and 2.8 megatons released by gasoline combustion. Furthermore, targeted policy implications for expediting the carbon–neutral transition within the passenger car sector are proposed. In essence, this study explores and compares benchmark data at both the national and regional levels, along with performance metrics associated with PHEV operations. The main objective is to aid nationwide decarbonization efforts, focusing on carbon reduction and promoting the rapid transition of road transportation toward a net-zero carbon future.