Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria Induce Pro-Inflammatory TNF-α and iNOS via PI3K/Akt Pathway in a TLR 2-Dependent Manner

<i>Desulfovibrio</i>, resident gut sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB), are found to overgrow in diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease and Parkinson's disease. They activate a pro-inflammatory response, suggesting that <i>Desulfovibrio</i> may play a causal role in inflammation. Class I phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) signaling pathway regulates key events in the inflammatory response to infection. Dysfunctional PI3K/Akt signaling is linked to numerous diseases. Bacterial-induced PI3K/Akt pathway may be activated downstream of toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling. Here, we tested the hypothesis that <i>Desulfovibrio vulgaris</i> (DSV) may induce tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression via PI3K/Akt in a TLR 2-dependent manner. RAW 264.7 macrophages were infected with DSV, and protein expression of p-Akt, p-p70S6K, p-NF-κB, p-IkB, TNF-α, and iNOS was measured. We found that DSV induced these proteins in a time-dependent manner. Heat-killed and live DSV, but not bacterial culture supernatant or a probiotic <i>Lactobacillus plantarum</i>, significantly caused PI3K/AKT/TNF/iNOS activation. LY294002, a PI3K/Akt signaling inhibitor, and TL2-C29, a TLR 2 antagonist, inhibited DSV-induced PI3K/AKT pathway. Thus, DSV induces pro-inflammatory TNF-α and iNOS via PI3K/Akt pathway in a TLR 2-dependent manner. Taken together, our study identifies a novel mechanism by which SRB such as <i>Desulfovibrio</i> may trigger inflammation in diseases associated with SRB overgrowth.