Status of off-bottom mariculture in wave-exposed environments. Part 2. Comparative loading and motion of longline designs currently used in exposed commercial farms

A global inventory of extractive species mariculture in wave-exposed temperate waters shows that the longline is the technology used in more than 99% of the sites (Part 1 of this review). In this second part, I compare the static (longline at rest), quasi-static (tidal sea surface elevation, steady currents and mainline lifting operation) and dynamic (wind seas and swells) loading and motion of surface, semi-submerged and fully submerged longlines used to grow bivalves and kelp. This review is based on a hundred papers published on the subject mostly after 2010 and on simple analytical models used to illustrate the many compromises that must be made to ensure the survivability of the structure and the survival (retention), growth and quality of the cultured biomass. Surface longlines are unsuitable for fully exposed environments. To mitigate storm energy it is necessary to minimize the volume of surface buoys and submerge the mainline to the maximum depth possible. There is however a limit to minimizing the volume of surface buoys due to the uplifting of the mainline by currents. In the case of kelp, its optimal growing depth is within a few meters from the sea surface. This limitation can be partly circumvented by having the kelp float above the mainline. In the case of bivalves, mainline depth can be tens of meters below the sea surface. This comes with some disadvantages including difficulties in maintaining the delicate buoyancy balance, particularly for fully submerged longlines without legs, and reduced access to the mainline, particularly for fully submerged longlines with legs. Devices that allow autonomous or remote-controlled changes of mainline depth on a daily, occasional (husbandry and harvest operations) or seasonal basis have been tested but are not yet used commercially on longlines.