Life cycle assessment of lithium-based batteries: Review of sustainability dimensions

Lithium-based batteries are essential because of their increasing importance across several industries, particularly when it comes to electric vehicles and renewable energy storage. Sustainable batteries throughout their entire life cycle represent a key enabling technology for the zero pollution objectives of the European Green Deal. The EU's (European Union) new regulatory framework for batteries is setting sustainability requirements along the whole battery, including value chains. For a comprehensive assessment of battery technologies, it is necessary to include a life cycle thinking approach into consideration from the beginning. This review offers a comprehensive study of Environmental Life Cycle Assessment (E-LCA), Life Cycle Costing (LCC), Social Life Cycle Assessment (S-LCA), and Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment (LCSA) methodologies in the context of lithium-based batteries. Notably, the study distinguishes itself by integrating not only environmental considerations but also social and economic dimensions, encapsulating the holistic concept of sustainability. Challenges unique to each assessment method are outlined, including data availability (with 35 % of the reviewed studies having openly accessible inventory data), methodological inconsistencies, uncertainty around future costs and social impacts. Difficulties such as data uncertainty, challenges in cost comparison, and the lack of standardized measures are underscored. The research identifies critical future directions for LCA, including the need for better data quality, adaptation to new technologies, and alignment with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Future research directions are suggested -including the standardization of methodologies, and fostering interdisciplinary collaboration. Overcoming these challenges holds the potential to advance sustainable practices in the battery industry and contribute to a cleaner energy future. • Lithium-based battery: Comprehensive life cycle and sustainability assessment. • Critical analysis: Battery impacts on environment, economy and society. • Interdisciplinary collaboration and policy integration: Key for sustainable practice. • Addressing challenges: transparency, decision integration, full life cycle account.