Scoping review exploring the evidence base on <i>Vitis vinifera</i> toxicity in dogs after ingestion: Clinical effects, treatments and types of <i>V. vinifera</i>

VVF ingestion typically causes gastrointestinal/renal dysfunction, with no clear toxicity attributable to VVF type. Treatments varied according to the presence/absence of clinical signs, and the prognosis was varied. Further research on current treatment efficacy is warranted, permitting an evidence-based, risk-benefit approach to be adopted by clinicians.