A review: evaluating methods for analyzing kidney stones and investigating the influence of major and trace elements on their formation

Abstract Kidney stone disease is a global concern, and its prevalence is increasing. The objective of this review is to provide a thorough analysis of the many analytical techniques used in the study of kidney stones and to investigate the significance of major and trace components in the development of kidney stone formation. The samples included organic (uric acid) and inorganic (calcium oxalate and carbonate apatite). To study kidney stone analysis methods like XRD, FTIR, SEM, and ICP-MS, a systematic literature review was conducted. The quantities and effects of main (calcium, oxalate, phosphate) and trace (magnesium, zinc, copper) elements in kidney stone development were also examined. The review shows that XRD and FTIR are best for evaluating kidney stone crystalline structure and content, whereas SEM gives rich morphological insights. Its trace element detection sensitivity makes ICP-MS unique. Calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate, the most common components, affect kidney stone development. Trace elements like magnesium prevent stone formation, whereas zinc and copper may encourage crystallisation. Results revealed significantly higher calcium levels in inorganic components compared to organic ones. Uric acid stones exhibited lower element content except for copper and selenium, likely originating from the liver. Carbonate apatite stones showed higher element concentrations, particularly magnesium, compared to calcium oxalate stones. Principal component analysis (PCA) identified three principal components, explaining 91.91 % of the variance. These components reflected specific co-precipitation processes of elements, with distinct distributions among different stone types. This variability in element content among stone types could serve as valuable guidance for patient dietary considerations.