Spatial and temporal variation in the prevalence of illegal lead shot in reared and wild mallards harvested in England

The use of lead shotgun ammunition for shooting wildfowl has been restricted in England since 1999, but surveys finding lead shot in harvested birds show compliance with regulations has been low. Following the announcement in 2020 of a voluntary transition from lead to non-lead shot by UK shooting organizations, we investigated spatiotemporal variation in the composition of ammunition used for shooting mallards Anas platyrhynchos. We collected 176 harvested mallards during the 2021/22 shooting season and analyzed recent shot extracted from carcasses to determine shot composition. Using a separate collection of ducks of known provenance, we used stable isotope analysis as a means of differentiating captive-reared from wild mallards. This allowed us to understand how compliance might vary between driven game shooters, characterized by shooting birds that are flushed over a stationary line of shooters, and who primarily harvest captive-reared and released ducks, and wild duck shooters. Of 133 mallards containing recent shot, 92 (69%) had been illegally shot with lead. Analysis of this and five comparable surveys between 2001 and 2019 indicates regional and temporal variation in lead shot presence in England. In the North West and West Midlands, the likelihood of mallards containing lead shot decreased significantly over time, but no other regions showed significant changes. The use of non-lead shot types varied over time, with increases in steel shot use approximately matched by declines in bismuth shot. Mallards likely to be reared were more likely to have been shot with lead (75%) than those likely to be wild (48%). This suggests the use of lead shot is more frequent among driven game shooters than wild duck shooters. In England in 2021/22, most mallards continued to be shot with lead, suggesting that neither legislation nor voluntary approaches have been effective in substantially reducing illegal use of lead shot.