Multiple Overspill Flood Channels from Young Craters Require Surface Melting and Hundreds of Meters of Midlatitude Ice Late in Mars’s History

Abstract Mars’s tadpole craters are small, young craters whose crater rims are incised by one or more exit breaches but lack visible inlets. The tadpole-forming climate records the poorly understood drying of Mars since the Early Hesperian. A third of tadpole craters have multiple breaches; therefore, the climate must have been able to generate crater rim incision in multiple locations. We use HiRISE data for four multiple-breach tadpole craters to measure their crater fill, rims, and exit breaches. We compare these measurements and other data with our calculations of liquid water supply by rain, surface melting, groundwater discharge, and basal ice sheet melting to discriminate between four proposed formation hypotheses for tadpole breaches, favoring scenarios with ice-filled craters and supraglacial melting. We conclude that multiple-breach tadpole craters record hundreds of meters of midlatitude ice and climate conditions enabling intermittent melting in the Late Hesperian and Amazonian, suggesting that liquid water on Mars has only been available in association with water ice for billions of years.