Advancing precision agriculture: domain-specific augmentations and robustness testing for convolutional neural networks in precision spraying evaluation

Abstract Modern agriculture relies heavily on the precise application of chemicals such as fertilisers, herbicides, and pesticides, which directly affect both crop yield and environmental footprint. Therefore, it is crucial to assess the accuracy of precision sprayers regarding the spatial location of spray deposits. However, there is currently no fully automated evaluation method for this. In this study, we collected a novel dataset from a precision spot spraying system to enable us to classify and detect spray deposits on target weeds and non-target crops. We employed multiple deep convolutional backbones for this task; subsequently, we have proposed a robustness testing methodology for evaluation purposes. We experimented with two novel data augmentation techniques: subtraction and thresholding which enhanced the classification accuracy and robustness of the developed models. On average, across nine different tests and four distinct convolutional neural networks, subtraction improves robustness by 50.83%, and thresholding increases by 42.26% from a baseline. Additionally, we have presented the results from a novel weakly supervised object detection task using our dataset, establishing a baseline Intersection over Union score of 42.78%. Our proposed pipeline includes an explainable artificial intelligence stage and provides insights not only into the spatial location of the spray deposits but also into the specific filtering methods within that spatial location utilised for classification.