The historical sensing of urban forest based on the indicators of CES and landscape categories: A case of Kushan scenic area in CHINA

• Ancients’ perception of cultural services is linked to specific landscapes. • Various factors influenced the ancients’ perception of cultural services. • The ancients tended to experience natural landscapes. • Urban development has an impact on cultural services. • Areas with better preservation of cultural heritage have a historical atmosphere. Urban forests significantly contribute to the subjective well-being of urban residents. As the scenic areas around cities, urban forests allow visitors to experience and perceive various intangible cultural ecosystem services by transmitting environmental information. Historically, long before the advent of modern society, humans have explored the forest surrounding urban areas for the well-being provided by their ecological environments. This study focuses on the Kushan Scenic Area depicted in ancient poems as a case to explore (1) the cultural services provided by ancient Kushan Mountain’s ecosystems, (2) the primary landscape categories depicted in historical poems, (3) the relationship between cultural services and landscape features, and the factors influencing this relationship. This research identifies five types of cultural services provided by the past urban forest: recreation and ecotourism (3 3 6), inspiration (2 3 0), spirit and religion (2 0 2), social relations (1 7 4), and cultural memory (1 2 1). Geological landscapes (25.3%), meteorological landscapes (21.1%), and hydrological landscapes (15.3%) emerge as key categories that stimulate ancients’ perceptual cultural services. The research reveals a distinct association between the perception of cultural services in ancient times and specific landscapes, with the strength of this association being influenced by factors such as season, time of day, and scenic context. Consequently, for the effective planning, marketing, and promotion of scenic areas and preserving their historical ambiance, a comprehensive understanding of the changing environment information of urban forests as scenic areas is essential, necessitating sustainable strategies.