Vulnerability to lead toxicosis and bioindicator utility of deer scavengers in New York

Abstract Lead (Pb) is a heavy metal with no clear biological benefit that is toxic to wildlife and humans. Although Pb has been banned from several consumer products, it is not regulated in ammunition for big‐game hunting (e.g., cervids) in New York, USA. Wildlife species that scavenge remains of game harvested with Pb ammunition can be exposed to bullet fragments through ingestion and potentially develop toxicosis. To make evidence‐based decisions for reducing risk from bullet‐derived Pb, we first empirically identified avian and mammalian scavengers of white‐tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) remains in New York through an online survey during July‐August 2023, where community members submitted images of scavengers from game cameras. We conducted species vulnerability and utility assessments using published evidence and pre‐existing frameworks. Despite inherent limitations, we documented an extensive array of avian ( n = 17) and mammalian ( n = 14) scavengers. We estimated bald eagles ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ) and golden eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos ) as most vulnerable to Pb toxicosis, followed collectively by American goshawks ( Accipiter atricapillus ), American crows ( Corvus brachyrhynchos ), and common ravens ( C. corax ). We also determined bald eagles to be best‐suited as bioindicators of bullet‐derived Pb, followed by American goshawks. Red‐tailed hawks ( Buteo jamaicensis ) and great horned owls ( Bubo virginianus ) equally ranked third. Integrating vulnerability and utility assessments point to bald eagles as the most vulnerable scavengers to Pb toxicosis and best‐suited bioindicators of bullet‐derived Pb. Because regulation of Pb ammunition for big‐game hunting is an ongoing socio‐political issue, wildlife managers and conservationists can address health risks through monitoring species vulnerable to toxicosis and instituting surveillance programs using the most effective bioindicators.