Cyto- and genotoxicity evaluation of water samples collected from two rivers in the Kosovo

River water in Kosovo is exposed to various discharges from industrial and agricultural activities as well as to urban wastewater. Rivers Sitnica and Drenica are among the most affected ones and water samples drawn from these rivers show the presence of various toxic substances. Genotoxic effects are seen in fish living in these rivers indicating a cytotoxic and mutagenic potential of the river water. Aiming at substantiating these observations, we assessed the cyto- and genotoxic effects of water samples collected at different locations from the Drenica and Sitnica rivers. Samples drawn from Lake Badovc served for comparison. To address seasonal effects, samples were collected at different seasons/time points during the period of summer 2016-spring 2018. The water samples were analyzed employing primary rat hepatocytes as a reliable in vitro cell model for the assessment of cytotoxic effects (mitotic arrest and cell death) and DNA damage/genotoxicity (micronucleus assay and Comet assay). The results do not account for significant effects associated with specific locations but demonstrate seasonal differences of the genotoxic potential of the water samples collected along both rivers, which are accompanied by a limited cytotoxic potential. Our data provide substantial support to earlier observations and strongly warrant the need for continuous chemical as well as biological monitoring of the river water in Kosovo, focusing on improved toxicant profiling of the river water and investigations addressing the observed seasonal variations.