Understanding mathematics anxiety and its impact on cognitive effort in second-grade children: a pupillometry investigation

Introduction Many individuals struggle with mathematics, and mathematics anxiety (MA) is associated with poor mathematics performance. The reasons for this association are unclear, but one explanation is that MA reduces the working memory capacity available for problem solving. Because changes in pupil diameter index cognitive effort, this study used pupillometry to examine whether MA is related to cognitive effort in second-grade children. Methods Ninety-eight second-grade pupils in Norway solved easy and hard addition problems while their pupil diameter was recorded with an eye tracker. Arithmetic competence, working memory, and general intelligence were measured as control variables, and the data were analysed with linear mixed models. Results Hard problems elicited more cognitive effort than easy problems. MA moderated this effect: children with higher MA showed a smaller increase in cognitive effort with increasing problem difficulty, even after controlling for arithmetic competence, working memory, and general intelligence. When only correctly solved trials were analysed, the interaction was no longer significant, but higher MA was associated with lower overall cognitive effort. Discussion Children with higher MA did not show the heightened effort predicted by working memory interference accounts; the pattern may instead reflect reduced task engagement or avoidance. Because pupil diameter change indexes overall psychophysiological effort, the precise cognitive and affective mechanisms remain unclear.